Self-reported adherence, data for which have been collected since July 2003, is classified according to the number of missed doses within 4 weeks prior to a cohort visit (0, 1 or >1 missed doses) as described previously [10]. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection was considered active if HBV surface (HBs) antigen, HBV envelope (HBe) antigen or HBV DNA was positive. HCV infection was considered active if HCV RNA was positive. For logistic regression analyses Antidiabetic Compound Library order of time trends and co-factors, we restricted the cohorts to participants who had started ART. The stably suppressed category for virological endpoints and the CD4 count

>500 copies/μL stratum for immunological endpoints were separately analysed using generalized estimating equation (GEE) models allowing repeated measures per patient. Time trends were quantified by using individual calendar years with indicator variables, and tests for trend included calendar year as a single continuous variable. selleck screening library As the frequency of viral load determinations varied depending on the clinical status of the patient (i.e. less monitoring

during stable first-line treatments with good adherence vs. more frequent monitoring in salvage treatment situations), we only used the last viral load category or CD4 stratum per year for each individual, as most participants were seen at least once per year. The effect of the length of the interval between viral load determinations was further analysed in sensitivity analyses (see below). The following fixed covariables were included in multivariable models to assess the extent of potential confounding: sex, transmission category, ethnicity (non-White vs. White), and era of starting selleck products ART (before 1997 vs. 1997 onwards). Time-updated covariables were age (strata: <40, 40–49, 50–59 and ≥60 years), number of new drugs in the regimen (strata:

0, 1, 2 and ≥3), use of novel drug classes [fusion inhibitors, chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 5 (CCR5) antagonists and integrase inhibitors] in the regimen, hepatitis B/C infection (active vs. inactive), and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stage (C vs. A or B). To account for potential reverse causality, we lagged the time-updated treatment by 1 year and considered the effect to last for 1 year. These associations are thus not depicting an immediate effect of a new drug – which is more likely to be prescribed shortly after virological failure – but rather the effect of a drug that was introduced 12–24 months prior to the current virological or immunological assessment. Time-updated information on adherence and whether the participant lives in a stable partnership were analysed in separate models limited to the years 2004–2008, because that information was not available for the first years of the study period.

Viral RNA was extracted from 200 to 500 μL of plasma using the High Pure Viral RNA Kit (Roche Diagnostics Systems, Basel, Switzerland) or the Nuclisense EasyMag (BioMérieux, Durham, NC, USA). DNA was extracted from a 200-μL suspension of PBMCs or buffy coat cells with the Qiagen Whole Blood Extraction Kit see more (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) or Nuclisense EasyMag. All extractions were performed according to the manufacturers’ instructions. Ficoll-Hypaque density-purified PBMCs (107 cells) were used immediately after isolation for co-cultivation with 5 × 106 phytohaemagglutinin-stimulated donor PBMCs in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with interleukin-2

as described previously [13]. Cultures were considered positive when two consecutive p24 antigen determinations revealed the presence of the viral antigen, after which the supernatant was harvested. One mL of the supernatant was transferred to a 5-mL suspension of MT2 cells [14]. Cells were checked visually for the presence of syncytia every 2 days. p24 antigen determination was performed on days 5, 10 and 20. The culture was stopped and the

isolate considered MT2 negative when the p24 antigen determination was negative and syncytia remained absent Vemurafenib order at day 20. Plasma HIV-1 RNA was quantified with the Amplicor HIV Monitor v1.5 test (Roche Diagnostics Systems), with a lower limit of detection of 50 RNA copies/mL, or the Abbott RealTime HIV-1 assay (Abbott Molecular Inc., Des Plaines, IL, USA), with a lower detection limit of 40 RNA copies/mL. The CD4 cell count was determined for the fresh blood sample by flow cytometry (using a FACScan cytofluorometer and cellquest software; Gefitinib Beckton Dickinson, Mountain View, CA, USA). Absolute CD4 cell counts were expressed per μL of blood. Amplification of a fragment spanning the V1 to V4 region of the HIV-1 env gene was performed using the Titan One Tube RT-PCR system (Roche), for both

RNA and DNA amplification. For DNA amplification, the RT step was omitted from the thermal cycling programme. A nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification protocol was used with the outer primers 6540 (HXB2 nucleotide positions 6540–6560; forward primer) and 7701 (positions 7701–7721; reverse primer) and inner primers 6561 (positions 6561–6580; forward primer) and 7645 (positions 7645–7667; reverse primer). Sequencing reactions were run with the BigDye® Terminator Cycle Sequencing kit v. 3.1 (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA) and three degenerate internal primers: 5′-AGYRCAGTACAATGYACACATGG-3′ (forward primer 1), 5′-TCAACHCAAYTRCTGTTAAATGG-3′ (forward primer 2) and 5′-ATTACARTAGAAAAATTCYCCTCYAC-3′ (reverse primer).

Plasmids and primers used in this study are listed in Table 2. Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of various antibiotics were determined by microdilution as described previously (Nishi et al., 2004). Oxacillin, bacitracin and vancomycin (Sigma learn more Chemical Co. Ltd, St. Louis, MO), as well as erythromycin and ofloxacin (Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd., Osaka, Japan), were used. Population analysis profiles were determined by plating appropriate dilutions of an overnight culture on plates containing various concentrations of bacitracin (Nishi et al., 2004). Colonies were counted after 48 h incubation at 37 °C. All susceptibility tests were

repeated at least three times to check the reproducibility of the results. A small portion of overnight culture of S. aureus was inoculated to fresh TSB. Then, S. aureus cells were grown at 37 °C with shaking. Various concentrations (0.5, 1, 8, 16 μg mL−1) of bacitracin were added to the medium when OD 660 nm reached 0.3. After 5, 15, 30 and 60 min, the cells were

collected. Total RNA was extracted with a FastRNA Pro Blue kit (MP Biomedicals, Ohio) in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol. One microgram of total RNA was reverse-transcribed to cDNA using a first-strand cDNA synthesis kit (Roche, Idelalisib manufacturer Tokyo, Japan). Using cDNA as template DNA, quantitative PCR was performed using LightCycler system (Roche). Primers for bceR, bceA, vraD, vraF and vraR were constructed and used to determine optimal conditions for analysis of their expression. The amount

of gyrA was used as internal control. Primers for quantitative PCR are listed in Table 2. All mutants used in this study were shown in Table 1. Table 3 shows the MIC results of the mutants against various antibiotics. In MW2-derived ABC transporter mutants, the MIC of bacitracin in MM02 (ΔbceAB), MM07 (ΔbceB) and MM03 (ΔvraDE), showed two- and fourfold reductions, respectively, compared with that of the wild type, while the MIC of MM01 (ΔvraFG) showed a similar level to that of the wild type. Also, the MIC of bacitracin in a TCS mutant, MM08 (ΔbceS), was reduced fourfold compared with that of the wild type, showing a similar result with that of FK77 (ΔbceRS). In addition, two RN4220-derived Rucaparib mutants, MM05 (ΔbceAB) and MM06 (ΔvraDE), showed increased susceptibility to bacitracin (fourfold reduction in MM05, 16-fold reduction in MM06), while another mutant MM04 (ΔvraFG) showed no change. For the complementation experiment, three complementation strains (MM09, MM10 and MM11) showed a similar susceptibility to bacitracin with that of the wild type (Table 3). MIC of oxacillin in MM02 (ΔbceAB) showed twofold reduction, while that of MM05 showed no alteration. Also, MIC of vancomycin in MM01 and MM04 (ΔvraFG) showed twofold reduction. MICs of the mutants against erythromycin and ofloxacin were similar to that of the wild type.

subcapitata EPZ5676 price in suspension was poured into an individual mold (disposable UV–vis cuvette), CaCO3 nanoparticles were gently placed on the surface of the liquid, 10 μL of 2.0% sodium alginate solution was poured on top and 0.2 M CaCl2 solution was immediately added in the form of a mist by means of a nebulizer machine. The second step of the immobilization procedure consisted of a silicate (sodium silicate, Riedel-de Haën; NaOH 10%, SiO2 27%) sol–gel process in the presence of commercial silica nanoparticles (LUDOX HS-40, 40% in water, obtained from Aldrich), leading to a nanoporous monolithic structure.

Monoliths were prepared at room temperature by mixing volumes of the different precursor solutions to obtain a SiO2:H2O molar relation of 0.038 with a fixed proportion of polymeric to particulate silica precursors (1:4) at constant pH 7.0, adjusted with HCl. As described in Section 2, daphnids and microalgae are co-immobilized in calcium alginate capsules of (8.5 ± 0.5) mm diameter and are further immersed in tubes where a mixture of sodium silicate

and colloidal silica is vigorously mixed. This colloidal solution undergoes a rapid sol–gel transition, and alginate capsules are quickly covered with a nanoporous silica gel (time of gelation: 2–3 min). As a result, silica biomaterials with liquid macrocavities containing daphnids and microalgae in M4 culture medium are formed. After 20 min (necessary time for the consolidation of the selleck chemical silica matrix), the biomaterials are immediately rinsed with distilled water, and fresh M4 medium is added to the tube (see Fig. 1). The high biocompatibility of this silica encapsulation procedure with P.subcapitata microalgal cells

is well established [16]. In this work, only the assessment of initial viability (1 h after encapsulation) is conducted by averaging the content of 10 macrocavities. To this end, the silica hydrogel is removed and samples are exposed to 0.05% potassium citrate to solubilize from the calcium alginate shell. The total number of cells inside individual cavities (2.35 × 105) was determined by counting cells in a Mallassez counting chamber; (99.2 ± 1.1)% of P.subcapitata cells remains intact, in good agreement with previous published results [16]. To evaluate the effect of the encapsulation procedure on D. magna, the content of each macrocavity was observed under an optical microscope (100× magnification) and the mobility of daphnids was recorded. The analysis reveals that 98% of the D. magna population (52 out of 53 total daphnids tested) remains active 1 h post-encapsulation, but this percentage drops to ∼32% only 6 h post-encapsulation (17 out of 53 total daphnids tested), and at 24 h post-encapsulation daphnids present no mobility. The complete set of results is presented in Fig. 2. Apart from the possible deleterious effect of the confinement itself, we hypothesized that the low biocompatibility towards D.

In conclusion, WARs have a hyperplasic adrenal gland, do not present ACTH circadian cycles and have higher corticosterone levels in response to exogenous ACTH than Wistar controls. These HPA axis abnormalities make WARs a suitable model to study stress and epilepsy as well as epilepsy–neuropsychiatry comorbidities. Male Wistar rats that were not susceptible to audiogenic seizures from

the main breeding colony at the Campus of Ribeirão Preto of the University of São Paulo and males from the WAR strain susceptible to sound-induced seizures (Doretto et al., 2003a) were used in this study. All experimental protocols used in this study were reviewed and approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto of the University of de São Paulo (Protocol number 203/2005). WARs were derived from a check details Wistar strain Ponatinib order of albino rats and have been selected for audiogenic seizure sensitivity (Doretto et al., 2003a) at the Vivarium of the Physiology Department of the Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine at the University of São Paulo. Wistar and WARs

were age-matched (56 to 63 days) and individually housed with free access to standard rat food and water in a controlled environment with a light/dark cycle of 12/12 h (light on at 6 a.m. and light off at 6 p.m.). The animals were allowed to habituate to the room for at least 5 days prior to the studies and were handled and weighed daily in order to reduce stress during the experiments. To determine the animal’s growth, both WARs and Wistar were weighed weekly, from their birth until the 9th week

of age. When animals were 21 days old, they were separated from their mothers and housed in collective cages with free access to food and water. To evaluate the circadian rhythm of corticosterone and ACTH plasma levels and adrenal gland weight, rats were decapitated under basal conditions at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m., and trunk blood samples were used for plasma L-NAME HCl corticosterone and ACTH measurements. In the morning, we also determined the left adrenal gland weight. Groups: Wistar 8 am (n = 6), Wistar 8 pm (n = 6), WAR 8 am (n = 6) and WAR 8 pm (n = 7). To perform the morphometric analysis of adrenal gland, we collected the glands of WAR and Wistar under basal conditions. Adrenal glands were fixed for 24 h in formalin, embedded in paraffin, and serially sectioned at 5 μm. Sections were stained with Gomori’s trichrome by standard protocols and photographed using a Zeiss Axiostar Plus microscope fitted with an Axiovision digital camera (Zeiss, Hemel Hempstead, UK).The area of the cortex was analyzed from digital images using AxiovisionRel4.6 software. The measurement was performed on four adjacent sections from the middle portion of each individual adrenal gland to ensure a reliable comparison. The medullary area and the length of the cortical layers (reticularis, fasciculata and glomerulosa) were measured under standardized conditions.

, 1973). Increased cardiovascular risk after mercury exposure has been reported, and both acute and chronic mercury exposure produces several toxic effects on the cardiovascular system. Acute mercury administration reduces arterial blood pressure (Rhee and Choi, 1989 and Rossoni et al., 1999) and myocardial contractility (Oliveira et al., 1994). Acute HgCl2 (5 mg/Kg) also produces cardiac systolic and diastolic failure, and pulmonary hypertension in vivo ( Rossoni et al., 1999). In left

ventricular papillary muscles, 0.5 and 1 μM HgCl2 increase force development ( Oliveira et al., 1994 and Assis et al., 2003) probably resulting from the inhibition of sarcolemmal Na+,K+-ATPase (NKA) ( Anner et al., 1992). At higher concentrations, mercury produces a Nutlin-3a chemical structure negative inotropism as a consequence of calcium

overload by reducing sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase activity ( Hechtenberg and Beyersmann, 1991). The metal also reduces tetanic tension development and myosin ATPase activity ( Vassallo et al., 1999 and Moreira et al., 2003) at these concentrations. In Langendorff-perfused hearts, perfusion find more with high concentrations of mercury also reduces cardiac contractility, thereby decreasing isovolumic pressure development ( Rhee and Choi, 1989 and Massaroni et al., 1995). Attention has recently been focused on the cardiovascular toxic effects of chronic mercury exposure and its association with hypertension, carotid atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction and coronary heart disease (Salonen et al., 2000, Virtanen et al., 2005 and Houston, 2007). Different forms of mercury, such as HgCl2 and methyl mercury, have different actions and adverse outcomes when acutely or when higher doses are used. For chronic low dose exposure Plasmin the proximate toxic agent is most likely inorganic mercury (Rooney, 2007). Moreover, studies

reporting mercury effects resulting from chronic exposition are still scarce and the underlying mechanisms are not yet well explored. In order to adequately control amounts of mercury absorption, we developed an experimental model for controlled chronic exposure to low concentrations of HgCl2; such a model describes an endothelial dysfunction in aorta and mesenteric resistance arteries due to decreased NO bioavailability by increased NADPH oxidase-derived O2- (Wiggers et al., 2008). We then investigated whether the effects of chronic exposure to low concentrations of mercury also affects cardiac contractility by evaluating effects on arterial and ventricular pressures, isolated heart, NKA and myosin ATPase activities, expression of calcium handling proteins and changes in myocyte morphometry. Findings provide further evidence that chronic exposure to low doses of mercury, even at concentrations considered to be safe, is an environmental risk factor for heart function and cardiovascular disease.

A 20-gauge celiac plexus neurolysis (CPN) needle or a standard 19-gauge needle was used for performing celiac plexus block or neurolysis. An on-site cytopathologist was available for rendering diagnosis in all cases. Diagnostic adequacy was defined as the ability to establish a preliminary diagnosis based on on-site analysis of FNA specimens. Technical failure was

defined as the need for use of more than one needle because of its dysfunction or the inability to successfully access and/or sample an organ or a lesion in an individual patient. At phase I, 625 needles were used in 548 patients (diagnostic FNAs = 487, interventions = 61), with an overall technical failure rate of 11.5% (TABLE 1 and TABLE 2). Of the 63 technical failures, 53 were FNAs and 10 were therapeutic interventions. Reasons for technical failure in the 53 diagnostic FNA cases were failure to deploy the needle out of the sheath in 38, kinking of the biopsy needle

check details at the handle in 3, bent needle tip that precluded adequate needle visualization in 9 (FNA of solid masses), and stylet dysfunction in 3. Reasons for technical failure in the 10 interventions were inability to deploy the needle out of the sheath in 7 and the needle being bent out of shape, thereby precluding adequate visualization see more in 3. Overall, more technical failures were observed with the use of 19-gauge versus 22- and/or 25–gauge needles (19.7% vs 8.8%; P = .004) and with transduodenal versus other routes (24.4% vs 5.2%; P < .001) for both diagnostic (technical failure in 10.9%) and therapeutic (technical failure in 16.4%) procedures. Of the 63 technical failures, 44 (70%) were encountered during transduodenal procedures. When evaluating technical failures

by the type of needle and route, compared to 25-gauge, a higher proportion of failures were observed with 19- and 22–gauge needles when the transduodenal route was navigated: 15 of 28 (53.6%) versus 12 of 14 (85.7%) and 17 of 21 (81.0%), respectively (P = .012). The overall diagnostic adequacy was 97.1%. Based on these these observations, an algorithm (Fig. 1) was developed with the objective of improving technical outcomes and resource use. As in phase I, all FNAs for tissue acquisition via the duodenum were performed by using the same 25-gauge needle and all other routes with a 22-gauge needle. Although all cyst aspirations (>2 cm in size) and interventions via the duodenum were performed by using the newly developed Flexible 19-gauge needle (Boston Scientific, Natick, Mass), a standard 19-gauge needle was used to perform these indications via other routes. Cyst lesions ≤2 cm in size were aspirated by using a 22-gauge needle, irrespective of its location. As in phase I, all celiac plexus blocks and neurolysis were undertaken by using a 20-gauge CPN or standard 19-gauge needle. This algorithm was then applied prospectively in phase II (September 2011 to April 2012) by 3 endosonographers.

Each cell line, except CHO line 4, was cultured in its optimal basal chemically defined (CD) medium for maintenance and batch and fed batch studies. Metabolism inhibitor Cell line 4 was maintained in a peptone containing medium, while batch and fed batch studies were performed in CD medium. Cell culture media utilized were: BD Select CHO and BD Select CD1000 (BD Advanced Bioprocessing), CDM4CHO (Thermo Fisher Scientific), and EX CELL CD CHO3 (SAFC). Feeds and media supplements utilized were: TC Yeastolate (TCY) and Proteose Peptone 3 (PP3) (BD Advanced Bioprocessing) and CD Cell Boost 6 (Thermo Fisher). The Duetz

sandwich-cover system and 24DW plates were obtained from Enzyscreen BV (Haarlem, Netherlands). The system includes 24DW plates (40 mm deep, pyramid bottom, volume 11 mL/well, transparent polystyrene plates), sandwich covers (CR1224a) and clamps (CR1700). Bioassay cultures were seeded at identical seeding density in 24DW plates and shake flasks. Culture volume was 3 mL and 50 mL in 24DW plates and shake flasks, respectively. Plate and shake flask cultures were incubated on a shaking platform in 5% CO2 at 37 °C. The shaking speed for plates was 300 rpm, while R428 research buy the shaking speed for flasks was 125 rpm.

The orbital diameter of the shaking platform was 25 mm for both plates and shake flasks. For 24DW plates, 300 μl samples were collected from the same well on various days of culture. These samples were diluted 2–3 times with PBS (Cellgro®) for assessment of cell growth (Viable cell density; VCD), viability and protein production. VCD and viability were determined using a Vi-CELL® (Beckman Coulter) and protein production was measured using a ForteBio Octet®

(Pall Life Sciences). For batch culture studies, peptones were added to basal media on Day 0. Fed batch cultures were fed with CD feeds on alternate days starting on Day Idoxuridine 0 of the culture. Peptone titration studies were performed to test the effect of various concentrations of peptones on growth and production of CHO cells in a batch culture. Minitab 16 software (Minitab Inc) was used to generate multivariate charts and to perform other statistical analyses. Correlation analysis was performed to determine growth and production performance relationship between shake flask and 24DW plates. The Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of linear association between two variables. Values of the correlation coefficient are always between −1 and +1. A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates that two variables are perfectly related in a positive linear sense. Two-Way ANOVA was used to assess effect of plates and peptone titration in plate-to-plate variation study. Four CHO lines were grown concurrently in their respective optimal base media in 24DW plates with Duetz sandwich-covers and in conventional shake flasks.

5 to 3 °C) than honeybees if measured at the same food Ponatinib chemical structure source and under the same ambient conditions ( Kovac and Stabentheiner, 1999, Kovac and Stabentheiner, 2011, Kovac et al., 2009, Kovac et al., 2010 and Schmaranzer and Stabentheiner, 1988). According to the life-style hypothesis ( Reinhold, 1999) we had expected that this would result also in a lower resting metabolism. However, it was a surprising result that Vespula stands out not only with a considerably higher resting metabolism compared to A. mellifera ( Fig. 4, insert, wasp CO2 production at 15 °C 41%, at 25 °C 63%, at 35 °C 57% higher than in bees, respectively) but also with a much steeper increase

(higher mean Q10 value) with rising ambient temperature. The wasps’

CO2 production ( Fig. 4) follows basically an exponential course. Slight deviations of single data points have been well documented in similar investigations on resting insects ( Kovac et al., 2007, Lighton and Bartholomew, 1988, Lighton, 1989 and Stabentheiner et al., 2003) and could be regarded as slight plateaus in an otherwise exponential increase. While the CO2 curve of honeybee resting metabolism follows a sigmoidal progression with the inflection point at around 37 °C Cyclopamine clinical trial ( Kovac et al., 2007), the wasps’ curve is described best by an adapted exponential function (see Fig. 4) with an assumed sudden drop-off at the wasps’ upper critical thermal maximum. Honeybee foragers feed on a diet consisting predominantly of carbohydrates, which results in a respiratory quotient (RQ) of 1 (Rothe and Nachtigall, 1989). As the wasps were caught on an artificial feeding station provided with sucrose solution and were also supplied with carbohydrates during the experiment (1.5 M sucrose solution not ad libitum), also a RQ = 1 could be assumed. So, as the wasp and bee RQ should show minimal – if any – differences under these experimental conditions, a direct comparison of their resting metabolism seems to be possible from the CO2 recordings. A comparison of the resting metabolism of Vespula with that of honeybees ( Kovac et al., 2007) and Polistes ( Weiner et al.,

2009 and Weiner et al., 2010) shows that the metabolism of Vespula is not optimized to save energy in the resting state. Their unexpected high basal metabolic rate and the steep incline with ambient temperature surely have consequences for their social thermoregulation. Similar as was reported in honeybees ( Stabentheiner et al., 2010), nest temperature regulation in Vespine wasps ( Himmer, 1962, Klingner et al., 2005, Klingner et al., 2006 and Steiner, 1930) can be assumed to be the result of behavioral measures, active (endothermic) heat production “on demand” and “passive effects”. An important passive effect is the reinforcement of passive heat production (in the ectothermic state) of resting individuals due to social nest temperature homeostasis ( Stabentheiner et al., 2010).

“
“Figure options Download full-size image Download as PowerPoint slide Professor Nina Chernova, the prominent Russian ecologist and soil scientist, passed away on August 9, 2010. A magnetic personality, creative researcher, brilliant teacher, the supervisor of numerous PhDs, the founder of Russian School of Collembology, Professor Chernova was one of the leaders of Russian soil zoology and ecology for the last decades. Her original way of thinking, her combination of clear and logical but imaginative expression of thoughts, and her unique sense of quiet

R428 humour created an aura around her, which attracted people – especially young researchers. Nina Chernova (maiden name Nina Barabanova) was born on May 16, 1935 in Volokolamsk (Moscow region), into the family of a school teacher. After the World War II (in which

she lost her father) the family moved to Kaliningrad (near Moscow). Life was difficult and her mother had to earn living while Nina, the eldest child, was responsible for looking after her small brother (a period he still recalls happily). Responsibility for her words and actions was a key feature of her character throughout her whole life. Childhood may also have been the time when she realized that learning and teaching would be her life’s path. BIRB 796 ic50 Nina finished school with the silver medal and entered the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute (later University, MSPU) to study biology. At first, she was drawn to animal physiology. However, her acquaintance with Professor M.S. Ghilarov as well as her first field expedition to the Caucasus with a group of soil researchers directed by Professor M.A. Glazovskaya, led Nina to focus on soil animals instead. She was introduced to the world

of soil animals by Professor Mercury Ghilarov, the founder of soil zoology in Russia and an outstanding Montelukast Sodium biologist. His belief was that the experience of a soil biologist should start from a detailed knowledge of a particular group of soil organisms. He had this same expectation of his students, which strongly stimulated the progress of soil zoology in Russia between 1950 and 1970. Nina did her diploma work on the morphology and biology of wireworms, graduated from the University with the red (high-grade) diploma and then worked for several years at the Institute of Phytopathology. In 1957, Nina became Nina Chernova having married Jury Chernov, then also a young researcher and a future remarkable Russian ecologist and biogeographer. Hand in hand, they spent 53 years together creating a happy family with a son and two grandsons, helping, stimulating and mutually teaching one another. In her PhD thesis (1964), inspired by Prof. Ghilarov, Nina Chernova comparatively investigated the development of soil invertebrate communities in ageing composts of different types. She used animal community structure to indicate stages of compost ‘ripeness’ and its maximum effectiveness to be applied as organic manure.