X–Z sectioning was performed to detect dye depth of penetration. For viewing Z-stacks of full skin thickness, the Z-axis images were gathered at 10 μm planes to a total depth of 200 μm using the 543 nm Argon laser line set to 40% of output. The frame size was set to 1024 × 1024 pixels, and the image was composed of 3 frames. Gain and offset were maximized to enhance contrast.
Subsequent image visualization was performed Caspase inhibitor using High Performance 3D–4D imaging software (Volocity 5.5, Improvision). The depth of the microchannels was estimated indirectly based on the depth of dye permeation. Where appropriate, a Mann–Whitney U or a Kruskal–Wallis test followed by a post hoc Dunn’s test was used to analyze permeation data using SPSS software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). In all cases, P ⩽ 0.05 denoted significance. The study involved assessment of the effect of characteristics of PLGA NPs (size, hydrophilicity, and charge) and dyes encapsulated therein (molecular weight, solubility, and % initial loading) on skin permeation using the dual MN/nanoencapsulation approach. PD0332991 price The structures of the two dyes used in the study (Rh B and FITC) are shown in Fig. 1. At physiological pH, Rh B is zwitterionic with a net neutral charge, while FITC is anionic [25]. The design of polymer MN arrays and application mode used in this study was based on data reported earlier for the effect of MN characteristics
on in vitro skin permeation of nanoencapsulated Rh B [10]. As shown in Fig. 2, MNs were conical in shape, with an average basal width of 300 μm, an average length of 600 μm and arranged at an inter-needle spacing of
300 μm with a density of 121 MNs per array. PLGA NPs with controlled physicochemical properties were prepared using 2% w/v polymer and an emulsion–solvent no evaporation method [10] with modulation of formulation variables and homogenization speeds (Table 1). The variable levels were optimized in order to modulate a target property without appreciably affecting other dependent properties. A total of eight Rh B and four FITC test NP formulations were used (Table 1). NPs prepared with DMAB (F1–F11) had a positive zeta potential due to adsorption of the cationic emulsion stabilizer, while those prepared with PVA (F12) had a negative surface charge conferred by the free end carboxylic groups of PLGA. Positive zeta potential values were generally greater than 30 mV. Table 1 shows that Rh B-loaded PLGA 50:50 NPs (F1–F3) with different size (422.3–155.2 nm) could be obtained using 3% w/v DMAB by increasing emulsion homogenization speed while keeping other formulation variables constant. Further, modulation of NPs hydrophilicity (F4–F6) was achieved by using PLGA with different lactide to glycolide ratio (100:0, 75:25, and 50:50) without discernibly affecting particle size, PDI, and zeta potential of NPs.