Two chromosomes are marked in red (1) and green (2) for comparison. PRN1371 cost Figure 4 shows the distribution of DNA and protein (in nanometers) in different chromosomes. The reference spectra of albumin and nucleic acids have strong transition peaks at 288.2 and 289.3 eV that can be attributed to the C1s → 1π* C = O of carbonyl bond of the amide group from the protein and C1s → 1π* C = N of DNA bases, respectively. It can be shown that the spectra extracted from chromosome 2 have an optical

density below 1.0 which shows that the spectra are not saturated due to the thickness of the chromosomes, and hence, STXM data can be used for quantitative measurements. The compositional maps or images (Figure 4) show that DNA is present in higher amounts than protein in each chromosome. The relative amounts of DNA and protein selleck products at any location

in a chromosome can be determined by extracting the spectra from a specific location and fitting with the reference spectra. In addition, the size, shape, and total amounts of DNA and protein can also be determined from the STXM find more data. For example, two similar chromosomes were manually segmented as shown in Figure 4 and compared for their size and composition (Figure 4, Table 1). Although the shape and area of the two chromosomes are similar, the total DNA and protein between the two chromosomes differ (Table 1). Table 1 Comparison of morphological and compositional characteristics of two chromosomes Name Area (μm2) DNA (nm) Protein (nm) Chromosome 1 0.32 123 ± 46.5 68.3 ± 28.1 Chromosome 2 0.29 111 ± 55.8 55.8 ± 29.1 The integration of the image data from chromosomal morphologies from AFM and SEM, and the chemical mapping from STXM allowed visualization and identification of the quinoa chromosomes. The morphological and biochemical analysis on chromosomes

using the STXM provided the local chemical architecture of the quinoa metaphase chromosomes. Our results demonstrates that AFM in combination with STXM could serve as a valuable tool for extracting spatiotemporal information from intra- and interphase chromosomes Superimposition of the topographical image from AFM and the STXM images provides precise analysis of the fine structural Dolutegravir nmr and chemical makeup of the chromosomes. The enormous amount of genetic information inside the chromosome is accessible only under in vivo conditions via loops during mitosis until maximum condensation of the metaphase stage [20]. Unlike the staining-based FISH technique or CLSM or SEM techniques, STXM and AFM offer imaging of the chromosomes under in vivo conditions. The advantages of STXM include less radiation damage to the chromosomes compared to electron microscopy and without alteration of chemical specificity due to the stains. In addition, the possibility of precisely estimating the composition of chromosomes using 3-D spectromicroscopy technique makes STXM an attractive tool [21].