To prevent chronic inflammation, the liver must modulate innate and adaptive immune responses to these diverse antigens [1, 3]. Conversely, the liver is an important organ in host defence against parasitic and microbial infections [4]. Thus, immune responses can be initiated in the liver to eliminate microbial infection [5-7]. Further understanding of the mechanisms RGFP966 that determine the balance between immunity to pathogens and tolerance to diverse dietary and other antigens will provide new insights into the design of therapeutic strategies to regulate immunity in liver infection,

autoimmunity and transplantation. Hepatic B cells comprise approximately 5% of intrahepatic lymphocytes [8-10]. Limited studies have addressed the function

of hepatic B cells in vitro [11] and in the regulation of experimental autoimmune biliary disease [12-14]. It has been shown that LPS-treated hepatic B cells enhance the production of interferon (IFN)-γ by liver natural killer (NK)1·1+ cells [11] and promote liver inflammation in the non-obese diabetic (NOD).c3c4 mouse model of autoimmune cholangitis Enzalutamide concentration [13], suggesting that hepatic B cells can regulate hepatic immune responses positively. In contrast, the Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands LPS (TLR-4) and cytosine–phosphate–guanosine (CpG) (TLR-9) can stimulate interleukin (IL)-10-producing regulatory B cells (Breg) (B10) and regulate immune responses negatively [15-17]. Given that LPS is delivered continuously by the liver via the portal blood, we hypothesize that the ability of

hepatic B cells to regulate immune responses positively might be due to a lack of LPS-activated Breg in the liver. In this study we demonstrate that, unlike splenic B cells, hepatic B cells lack B10 cells and comprise significantly smaller proportions of B1a and marginal zone (MZ)-like B cells [16]. In addition, when compared with liver conventional myeloid (m)DCs from B cell-deficient mice, those from B cell-competent wild-type mice were more immunostimulatory, as evidenced by higher levels of maturation marker expression Cobimetinib supplier in response to in-vivo LPS stimulation, and by a greater production of proinflammatory cytokines following ex-vivo LPS stimulation. Male C57BL/6 (B6; H2b) and B6·129S2-Ighmtm1Cgn/J (μMT) mice were purchased from The Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME, USA). B6·129P2-IL-10tm1Cgn mice (IL-10 reporter) were kindly provided by Dr David Rothstein (University of Pittsburgh). They were housed under specific pathogen-free conditions at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, with unlimited access to food and water.