The idea that Treg have the capacity to specifically suppress Th1, Th2, or Th17 responses has gained ground in the past year and fits

well with the conclusions of the article 18. Recently, elegant studies have demonstrated that Treg respond to cues from their cytokine environment and develop into highly specialized suppressors of Th1, Th2, or Th17 responses. These tailored suppressive functions are induced in Treg by “mirroring” expression of transcription factors specific for the target population. Thus, Rudensky and colleagues 19 showed that Treg expressing high levels of interferon MAPK Inhibitor Library nmr regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), an essential transcription factor for Th2 cells, selectively suppress Th2 responses. Specific ablation of IRF4 in Treg leads to uncontrolled Th2 responses

with increased numbers of IL-4- and IL-5-producing CD4+ T cells, increased serum IgG1 and IgE, tissue infiltration, and autoimmunity. In a second study 20, the same group showed a similar mechanism for the specific suppression of Th17 responses. It is suggested that IL-6 and TGF-β, cytokines that induce Th17 differentiation, activate STAT3 in Treg leading to the acquisition of a Th17-specific suppression program 20. Again, the same transcription Roxadustat cost factor, STAT3, is used by both Th17 cells and Treg to induce or inhibit the Th17 response respectively. Deleting STAT3 in Treg led to uncontrolled Th17 responses and fatal intestinal inflammation 20. Finally, and perhaps most relevant to the current study 18, such a linked transcriptional program was also identified for the suppression of Th1 responses 21. In this case, IFN-γ induces T-bet, an essential transcription factor for Th1 generation in Treg, which in turn enables Treg

to attenuate Th1 responses. In this issue, Liu et al.18 convincingly demonstrate diminished IFN-γ responses and increased levels of IL-4 in AChR-immunized Mirabegron mice treated with IL-2 complexes. This result suggests that IL-2 specifically promotes the Th1 suppression program in Treg during myasthenia gravis development. It would be of interest to ask whether Treg isolated from IL-2-treated mice express higher levels of T-bet. Alternatively, IL-2 may preferentially expand an already existing T-bet-expressing Treg population during the AChR autoimmune response. It should be noted that in disease models where skewing Th1 to Th2 responses is therapeutically beneficial, such as in the myasthenia gravis model described by Liu et al. 18, it cannot be excluded that IL-2 directly influences the Th1/Th2 balance. The role of IL-2 in Th1/Th2 differentiation is still not fully understood. Early reports suggested that IL-2 facilitated the development of Th1 and Th2 cells in vitro, perhaps by ensuring their survival during the differentiation process. Using IL-2−/− T cells, we showed that IL-4 and IFN-γ production is deficient after antigenic stimulation in vitro22.