For example, in the North of England and Scotland average temperatures during the active growing season of the spring crop remain below 15 °C which is a more favourable

environment for growth and infection by Microdochium species ( Parry et al., 1995 and Xu et al., 2008). In contrast, F. poae requires dry and warm conditions of around 25 °C for optimum growth ( Parry et al., 1995 and Xu et al., 2008). F. graminearum infection is more often associated with wet and warm conditions during anthesis, whereas Selleck Epigenetic inhibitor F. culmorum, F. avenaceum and F. tricinctum require wet, humid and cool environmental conditions ( Xu et al., 2008). There were only small differences between the barley cultivars included in our studies with respect to the amounts of pathogen DNA present. The exception was cv Shuffle which had significantly lower amounts of total fungal DNA, irrespective of region, compared with the other elite cultivars such as Concerto, Forensic, Optic, Westminster (P = 0.042). This indicates that current commercially available cultivars, at least in the UK, are of similar susceptibility to Fusarium infection. Only a few sources of FHB resistance are known in barley, however, the level of resistance, even in these, is at best moderate ( Bai and Shaner, 2004). Mycotoxin analysis of the UK barley samples revealed that the predominant mycotoxins were DON followed by NIV and ZON and lastly by HT-2 and T-2 at low concentrations. PLX4032 nmr In 2010

and 2011 a large number of samples were analysed to obtain a representative overview of the natural mycotoxin contamination in English and Scottish fields and these were all found to be below the legislative limits of Fusarium related mycotoxins. In contrast to HT-2 and T-2, DON and NIV were found in significantly higher concentrations in 2011 than in 2010. The sum of HT-2 and T-2 found in the barley samples from 2010 was significantly associated with DNA of F. langsethiae. Besides F. langsethiae, F. sporotrichioides is also

known to produce HT-2 and T-2 ( Thrane et al., 2004). However in the UK, previous studies in oats have shown a strong relationship between combined HT-2 and T-2 levels and DNA amounts of F. langsethiae ( Edwards et al., 2012), whereas in Europe three different species, F. langsethiae, Montelukast Sodium F. sporotrichoides or Fusarium sibiricum, are associated with HT-2 and T-2 ( Fredlund et al., 2010, Yli-Mattila et al., 2008 and Yli-Mattila et al., 2009). The barley samples were analysed for F. sporotrichioides DNA with primers known to cross-react with F. sibiricum ( Yli-Mattila et al., 2011) but failed to detect the DNA of either species or to isolate any of these species from barley grain. Thus, the evidence suggests that in the UK, contamination with HT-2 and T-2 in both oats and barley is predominantly associated with F. langsethiae. Isolates of F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. poae are able to produce NIV; in the present study only F. poae correlated strongly (R2 = 0.