, 2005). Reduction of IL6, with no changes observed in TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL10, iNOS and HO-1, suggested that IL6 differences were not linked to heightened neuroinflammation. Microglia mean

cell body volume of animals from the 30 ppm group with blood Pb levels between 2.48 μg/dL and 4.65 μg/dL exceeded that of the controls by 40.53 μm3, however the larger group mean was derived from an extremely broad range of cell sizes in the low-dose animals (Fig. 1) that was unique to the low-dose animals. Morphological studies of qualitative cell features are needed to examine structural sources of these observed volumetric differences. (Microglia mean cell body volume of the 330 ppm animals did not differ significantly from controls. This will be discussed further below.) During

activation microglia proliferate. With regard to DG microglia number, counter to our hypothesis, as compared with Selleck Ion Channel Ligand Library controls the microglia mean cell body number of the 30 ppm exposure group was significantly decreased (1842 fewer cells). In the 330 ppm exposure group, as compared with controls, the decrease was even greater (2932 fewer cells), and differed significantly from the 30 ppm exposure group. Regression analysis confirmed that the effects were dose-dependent and suggested that for each one unit (μg/dL) increase in blood Pb, DG microglia decreased by 170 cells. There are several possible sources of fewer detectable Ku-0059436 order IBA-1 labeled microglia in Pb-exposed animals. IBA-1 is present in all normal microglia and it is up-regulated during activation. IBA-1 critically regulates membrane ruffling, cell motility and phagocytosis (Deininger et al., 2002 and Ito et al., 1998). Fewer detected IBA-1 labeled microglia in Pb exposed animals could result from disrupted production of IBA-1 in microglia (which in turn would disable normal microglial cell Astemizole function). Determining whether the findings reflect fewer normally functioning microglia, rather than reduction of total microglial cells, requires further study. Also of note, whether IBA-1

is expressed exclusively by microglia has been recently questioned. For example, one study of rat brain suggested that other types of macrophages also express IBA-1 including meningeal, supra ependymal, and vascular stromal cells (Kirik et al., 2011). Of these, stromal cells may be found in dentate gyrus, and their morphology differs from that of microglia. This is a consideration for future studies of neuroimmune function and Pb exposure that examine brain regions likely to include these types of macrophages. Another explanation concerns proliferation mechanisms. Studies have suggested that the P2X7 receptor is critical for microglial proliferation during activation (Monif et al., 2010). Future studies could examine the effects of brain Pb and/or increased δ-ALA on P2X7 and thus proliferation.