The methods of cell culture, Caco-2 cell monolayer construction and the synthesis of fluorescent probes were the same as the previous report [30]. To determine the TEER, the well-cultured Caco-2 cell monolayers were incubated with insulin preparations, and the TEERs of Caco-2 cell monolayers were determined at different times by a Millicell Electrical Resistance System equipped with STX-2 electrodes (Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA). To study the intracellular trafficking of BLPs,

cells were cultured on coverslips for 5 days prior to testing. For endosome investigation, the cells were treated with Elafibranor rhodamine-labeled BLPs for 2 h. Then, the cells were continued to be incubated with Rabbit polyclonal antibody Rab5 (ab18211, Abcam, UK) and Mouse monoclonal Rab7 (ab50533, Abcam, UK) overnight at 37°C followed by the addition of a secondary antibody Liproxstatin-1 FITC-goat anti-rabbit IgG to identify the early and later endosomes. For lysosome AL3818 investigation, the medium containing LysoTracker® Red DND-99 g was added into the cells beforehand to label the lysosomes for 2 h. Subsequently, the cells washed with PBS were

incubated with FITC-labeled insulin (FITC-ins) loaded BLPs for another 2 h. Finally, the media were removed from the cells and the co-localizations of BLPs with cytoplasmic vesicles were observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). In vitro cytotoxicity evaluation of liposomes The cytotoxicity of the liposomes was examined by assessing the viability and apoptosis of Caco-2 cells in the presence of different concentrations of liposomes. The viability of the cells was measured using the MTT assay. Caco-2 cells were cultured for 48 h and rinsed with PBS three times, into which liposomes with various lipid levels were introduced. After incubation for 5 h at 37°C, the MTT solution (20 μL, 5 mg/mL) was added to each well holding cells and continued

to incubate for 4 h. DMSO (200 μL) was added to each well to dissolve completely the internalized purple formazan crystals when the medium and excess MTT were removed. UV absorbance of each well was tested at a wavelength of 490 nm. Cell viability was calculated from the ratio between the number of cells treated with the liposomes and that of the control (blank) following PIK3C2G the equation: Cell viability (%) = (A tri/A con) × 100%, where A tri was the absorbance intensity of the cells treated with liposomes, and A con was the value treated with PBS. The cells treated with culture medium served as 100% cell viability. To assess the effect of liposomes on cell apoptosis, liposomes with different lipid concentrations were added into the cells and incubated for 4 h. The state of apoptosis were analyzed by detecting the phosphatidylserine (PS) translocation of cell membranes using annexin V-FITC and PI double staining in order to differentiate apoptotic cells from necrotic cells.