Social exploration is determined as the amount of time spent investigating the juvenile (sniffing, near the juvenile) and is reported as percentage of baseline. Animals were euthanized via CO2 asphyxiation 24 hours after treatment, perfused with sterile ice-cold saline, and then the brain and liver tissues were dissected and flash frozen. All tissue samples were stored at −80°C until further processing for analysis. RNA was isolated using

E.Z.N.A. Total RNA kits according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Omega Biotek, Norcross, Georgia). Synthesis of cDNA was carried out using a high-capacity RT kit (Applied Biosystems, Grand Island, New York) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Real-time this website quantitative RT-PCR (qPCR) selleck was performed to detect changes in mRNA expression of ARE genes NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) (Mm.PT.56a.9609207) and heme oxygenase I (HMOX1) (Mm.PT.56a.9675808), and the transcription factor Nrf2 (Mm.PT.56a.29108649M). The inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) (Mm.PT.56a.41616450) was

used as a marker to detect if inflammatory cytokine production was reduced in animals fed the broccoli diet. The glial activation markers glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) (Mm.PT.56a.6609337.q), CD11b (Mm.PT.56a.9189361), major histocompatibility complex II (MHC-II) (Mm.PT.56a.43429730), and CX3CR1 (Mm.PT.56a.17555544) were used to determine whether astrocyte and microglial activation were affected Cyclooxygenase (COX) by dietary intervention. All genes were analyzed using PrimeTime real-time quantitative RT-PCR Assays (Integrated DNA Technologies, Coralville, Iowa) and were compared with the housekeeping control gene GAPDH (Mm.PT.39.a.1)

using the 2−ΔΔCt calculation method as previously described [24]. Data are expressed as fold change versus control diet mice treated with saline. All data were analyzed using Statistical Analysis System (SAS, Cary, North Carolina). Data were subjected to three-way analysis of variance for main effects of age, diet, and LPS, and all 2- and 3-way interactions. Where analysis of variance revealed a significant interaction, post hoc Student t test using Fisher least significant differences was used to determine mean separation. All data are expressed as means ± SEM. Antioxidant response element gene expression is elevated in glial cells treated with SFN, indicating that glia may be sensitive to the protective benefits of SFN [25], [26] and [27]. Because glial cells are also the predominant producers of proinflammatory mediators in brain, we measured expression of several markers of glial reactivity. Glial fibrillary acidic protein was elevated in brain of aged mice (P < .001). Interestingly, broccoli diet lowered expression of GFAP in aged mice (age × diet interaction; P < .05) ( Fig. 1).