It has already been described in the literature that other Copanlisib cell line congeners, such as BDE-209 and BDE-47, decreased the number of cells with functional mitochondria as assessed by the same MTT method (Hu et al., 2007 and Hu et al., 2009). These same groups also described

the ability of BDE-47 and BDE-209 to induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells. BDE-99 has also been reported to induce cell death in cortical cultured cells at concentrations of 10 and 30 μM (Alm et al., 2010), the same range of concentration that we observed a decrease in HepG2 cell viability. In order to better understand the mechanisms underlying BDE-99 toxicity and to observe if this congener would have the same ability to induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells, its ability to interfere with cell mitochondria was first measured. A decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential was observed at almost all the concentrations that induced cell death (10–25 μM after 24 h of incubation and 0.5–25 μM after 48 h). This decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential could occur due to an opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pores, which would release proteins such as cytochrome c, that trigger the apoptotic pathway ( Grivicich et al., 2007). www.selleckchem.com/products/PLX-4032.html Our

results also showed a clear relationship between a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential and accumulation of ROS. Therefore, just as observed for the BDE-209 and BDE-47 congeners, the toxic effects of BDE-99 are related to ROS accumulation (Hu et al., 2007, Huang

et al., 2010, Shao et al., 2008 and Weihong et al., 2008). We also evaluated the ability of BDE-99 to induce apoptosis. Apoptotic cell death is associated with characteristics such as phosphatidylserine exposure due to selective oxidation (Tyurina et al., 2000 and Matsura et al., 2005). Our results showed that high levels of ROS induced by cell exposure to BDE-99 were followed by phosphatidylserine exposure, suggesting that ROS accumulation induced by BDE-99 can lead to apoptosis. Selleckchem Gemcitabine In addition, the LDH leakage studies showed no increase in LDH after exposure to BDE-99, which together with the absence of PI stained cells and the continued ability of the cells to exclude trypan blue, suggests that the necrosis pathway is not relevant in BDE-99 induced HepG2 toxicity. However, there is controversy about the ability of PBDEs to induce LDH leakage. BDE-47 and BDE-209 were reported to cause a concentration-dependent inhibition of MTT reduction and LDH leakage in human neuroblastoma cells (He et al., 2008), and HepG2 cells (Hu et al., 2007), whereas BDE-99 (up to 100 μM) did not induce the release of LDH in human astrocytoma cells cultured for 24 h, even though the MTT had decreased significantly (Madia et al., 2004). This last finding is in agreement with the present results for the same BDE congener.